Aspects of Chemistry as a Science

OUTLINE OF THE COURSE

The general topics discussed in the courses are:

- origin of the word CHEMISTRY and popular misconceptions about Chemistry

- methodological aspects of Chemistry

- sociological aspects of Chemistry

- case studies in historical development of Chemistry

Origin(s) of the word CHEMISTRY:

chemistry => alchemy => al-khimia (Arab.)

kim = ??? (is not an Arabic word)

Propositions for "kim":

1) Khemia (Chmia) --> transliteration of Egyptian word

for black soil, Egyptians were early alchemists

2) Khemeia (Chmeia) <=> Khumeia (Cumeia) -->

Khuma = "that which is poured"; ingot, bar which suggests alchemical origins

3) Chinese character for gold "jin" --> Romanized as

"kim" which was used in immortality elixirs

Proposition 1) is today considered unlikely, 2) & 3) being equally likely indicating alchemical origins. All this signifies the eminently empirical origins of Chemistry which was for a long time devoid of unifying rational framework and thus had to struggle for identity amongst other sciences.

Popular misconceptions about chemistry:

a) The primary aim of chemistry is the accumulation of facts! (WRONG!) A collection of facts does not constitute scientific knowledge as students need reminding when preparing for their exams!

b) Chemistry deals with artificial substances (chemicals) which are harmful and cause pollution (WRONG!)

Chemicals are not only produced by Man, but also in Nature. Chemistry studies all substances regardless of their origin.

c) Chemical knowledge is Truth! (WRONG!)

Science/Chemistry does not search for ultimate explanations; every scientific law is subject to modification; there are no absolute Truths in Science.

Such misconceptions are related to TOE, reductionism !?

d) Chemistry is (or should be?) concerned primarily with solving practical problems! (WRONG!) Chemistry also seeks understanding; technological advancement does not necessarily lead to a better understanding of Nature.

Specific aspects of Science/Chemistry:

Methodological:

- What makes Chemistry part of Science?

- What are the main characteristics of scientific practice/method?

- How do scientific theories develop (“dynamics of theories”)?

Sociological:

- What motivates chemists in their work?

- What is the perception of Chemistry held by the general public?

-What is the relationship between Science & human values?

-What are the costs/benefits of Chemistry to human society?

Historical:

- How, why and when did Science develop within the framework of human history?

- Why did modern Science originate in W. Europe in 16^th century and Chemistry in 18^th century?

Methodological/philosophical aspects of Chemistry [1]

Chemistry is part of Natural Sciences because it shares with them (e.g. physics, biology etc.) several essential characteristics:

- It is a form of knowledge

- It is guided by the laws of Nature

- It is explanatory with reference to natural laws

- It is testable against empirical world

- It's conclusions are tentative (they are not the final word)

- It is falsifiable

- It is performed within a scientific community (which assures self-correction & progress)

These characteristics also permit a distinction to be made between Science and Pseudoscience (e.g. creationism). The practical methods used in Science are based on a mixture of logical, historical and sociological concepts. This is not a weakness, but rather an asset because it ensures survival and progress of Science.

Science/Chemistry also tries more or less successfully to uphold several ethical ideals which can also be models for Society at large:

- originality; scientific studies should produce new results, studies which add nothing new are not part of Science

- detachment; Scientist should work for the advancement of knowledge without personal attachment to particular point of view

- global and collaborative nature; scientific claims are given weight according to their intrinsic merits alone, regardless of religious, social, ethnic or personal attitudes of people who made them.

- skepticism; all scientific claims are scrutinized for invalid arguments and these should be made public

- public accessibility; scientific knowledge should be made publicly available and this free flow of ideas is essential for progress of Science. (Does classified research constitute Science?)

Sociological aspects of Chemistry [2]

What motivates scientists in their work?

Personal motives:

- scientific curiosity

- pleasure in doing research

- desire for scientific reputation

- desire for influence within scientific profession

External motives:

- attraction of public fame

- desire to find practical applications of scientific knowledge

- need to secure funding or make profit from research

- desire to influence public policy

Is current Science value neutral? It is NOT, contrary to the belief held by many scientists!

There are two principal, related reasons for it.

a) The notion which many scientists have, that Science discovers facts and it is up to the Society to decide how the discoveries should be used is not realistic. Modern societies are very complex and the executive authority is in the hands of various social institutions (governments, courts, corporations, banks, universities, churches, political parties) which act as a buffer between citizens and applications of Science. These institutions wield great economic resources, but can sometimes pursue their own, narrow interests and thus adversely influence the functioning of Science. Modern experimental science requires large funds (professionalization and industrialization of Science) which can only be obtained from such institutions. Furthermore, the motives of scientists are diverse (see above) which makes them susceptible to influence from such organizations. In conclusion, it can be said that the influence of general public on scientific & technological developments is often indirect.

b) The second reason is depicted in the scheme below

The decisions concerning research aims & priorities are sometimes made in ignorance of the new results which research may discover and also inevitably contain value judgments i.e. why should one type of research be pursued in preference to another. This allows value judgments to enter into the feedback loop shown in the diagram. As a consequence Science today is not value neutral.

Public perceptions of Chemistry/Science

There are two extreme attitudes towards Science/Chemistry.

Baconian vision (after philosopher F. Bacon) states that the progress of Mankind can be only achieved through the development and application of Science & Technology in the exploitation of natural resources. Knowledge is power! The improvement in physical environment will subsequently lead to better social environment and to the more humane society. Most scientists and governments subscribe to this belief which originated during the Age of Enlightenment in W. Europe.

Frankensteinian vision (after novel by M. Shelley) expresses concern at unrestrained development of Science & Technology (“Man playing God”) and points out the role of Science & Technology in development of weapons of mass destruction and environmental degradation. Many people in the Green movements subscribe to this view of Science.

The students in the courses being described are encouraged to adopt the attitude of critical realism which highlights the great usefulness of Scientific & Technological progress even though any such progress inevitably entails risks and adverse effects. The risk/benefit analysis concerning scientific & technological progress, when performed in an open, democratic way, can avoid descent into either uncontrolled technological development or anti-scientific and anti-technological backwardness.

The set of statistical data taken from a suitable source [3] is presented to the students at this point, in order to illustrate risks/benefits and help them to develop rational attitudes towards scientific progress.

The data contain information about R & D expenses and revenues of major chemical corporations, both of which run into tens of billions of US$ annually. The amounts of money involved are larger than GDP of most countries and emphasize the tremendous importance of Chemistry in the modern world. The role of Chemistry in the production of agrochemicals (fertilizers and pesticides) is also presented as the crucial contribution without which it would be impossible to feed 4 billion inhabitants of this planet. Finally, data concerning R & D expenses and revenues in manufacturing of pharmaceuticals (tens of billions of US$) are shown together with the timescales (at least 5 years) required for the introduction of new medicines. This underlines the earlier comment on “industrialization & professionalization” of Chemistry.

Historical developments